Napoleon Bonaparte ( Prancis : Napoleon Bonaparte Napoleon puis saya eh [napoleɔ bɔnɑpaʁt] ) (15 Agustus 1769 - 5 Mei 1821) adalah seorang pemimpin militer dan politik Perancis selama tahap terakhir dari Revolusi Perancis .
Sebagai Napoleon I, ia adalah Kaisar Perancis 1804-1815. Reformasi hukum-Nya, Kode Napoleon , telah menjadi pengaruh besar pada banyak hukum perdata yurisdiksi di seluruh dunia, tetapi dia adalah yang terbaik diingat untuk perannya dalam perang melawan Perancis yang dipimpin oleh serangkaian koalisi, yang disebut Perang Napoleon . Dia mendirikan hegemoni atas sebagian besar benua Eropa dan berusaha untuk menyebarkan cita-cita Revolusi Prancis, sementara mengkonsolidasikan suatu monarki kekaisaran yang dipulihkan aspek digulingkan rezim ancien . Karena keberhasilannya dalam perang, sering melawan musuh superior, dia umumnya dianggap sebagai salah satu komandan militer terbesar sepanjang masa.
Napoleon lahir di Corsica kepada orangtua dari Genoa yang mulia keturunan, dan dilatih sebagai seorang perwira artileri di daratan Prancis. Dia bangkit untuk menonjol di bawah Republik Pertama Perancis dan memimpin kampanye sukses terhadap Pertama dan Kedua Koalisi tersusun melawan Perancis. Pada tahun 1799, ia melancarkan kudeta dan diinstal dirinya sebagai Konsul Pertama , lima tahun kemudian memproklamirkan dirinya Senat Perancis kaisar. Pada dekade pertama abad ke-19, Kekaisaran Perancis di bawah Napoleon terlibat dalam serangkaian konflik-Perang Napoleon-yang melibatkan setiap kekuatan besar Eropa. [1]
Setelah kemenangan beruntun, Prancis mengamankan posisi dominan di benua Eropa, dan Napoleon mempertahankan Prancis lingkup pengaruh melalui pembentukan aliansi luas dan pengangkatan teman-teman dan anggota keluarga untuk memerintah negara-negara Eropa lainnya seperti Perancis negara klien . Kampanye Napoleon yang belajar di akademi militer di seluruh sebagian besar dunia. [2]
Para Perang Semenanjung dan 1812 invasi Perancis Rusia ditandai titik balik dalam kekayaan Napoleon. Nya Grande Armée rusak parah dalam kampanye dan tidak pernah sepenuhnya pulih. Pada 1813, Koalisi Keenam mengalahkan pasukannya di Leipzig , tahun berikutnya Koalisi menginvasi Prancis, Napoleon dipaksa untuk melepaskan dan diasingkan ke pulau Elba . Kurang dari setahun kemudian, ia melarikan diri Elba dan kembali berkuasa, namun dikalahkan pada Pertempuran Waterloo pada Juni 1815. Napoleon menghabiskan enam tahun terakhir hidupnya dalam kurungan oleh Inggris di pulau Saint Helena . Hasil otopsi menyimpulkan ia meninggal karena kanker perut , meski pernyataan ini telah memicu perdebatan yang signifikan, karena beberapa ahli telah menyatakan bahwa ia adalah korban dari arsenik keracunan.
Asal dan pendidikan
Napoleon Bonaparte lahir anak kedua dari delapan anak-anak di rumah leluhur keluarganya Casa Buonaparte , terletak di kota Ajaccio , Corsica. Ia dilahirkan pada 15 Agustus 1769, satu tahun setelah Corsica dipindahkan ke Prancis dengan Republik Genoa . [3] Dia dibaptis Napoleone di Buonaparte, mungkin memperoleh nama pertamanya dari paman (meskipun kakak, yang tidak bertahan hidup bayi, juga bernama Napoleone ). Ia dipanggil dengan nama ini sampai dua puluhan, ketika ia mengadopsi Napoleon Perancis makin terdengar Bonaparte. [4] [catatan 1]
Dia memiliki kakak, Yusuf , dan adik-adiknya Lucien , Elisa , Louis , Pauline , Caroline dan Jérôme . Ada juga dua anak lainnya, anak laki-laki dan perempuan, yang lahir sebelum Yusuf namun meninggal saat masih bayi. [13] Napoleon dibaptis sebagai seorang Katolik tepat sebelum ulang tahunnya yang kedua, pada 21 Juli 1771 di Katedral Ajaccio . [14]
Mulia Napoleon, latar belakang cukup makmur dan hubungan keluarga memberikan dia kesempatan yang lebih besar untuk belajar daripada yang tersedia untuk Korsika khas waktu. [15] Pada Januari 1779, Napoleon terdaftar di sebuah sekolah agama di Autun , daratan Prancis, untuk belajar bahasa Prancis, dan pada bulan Mei ia mengakui ke akademi militer di Brienne-le-Chateau . [16] Dia berbicara dengan aksen Korsika ditandai dan tidak pernah belajar mengeja dengan benar. [17] Napoleon diejek oleh siswa lain untuk aksen dan diterapkan dirinya untuk membaca. [18] [catatan 2] Sebuah pemeriksa mengamati bahwa Napoleon "selalu dibedakan untuk aplikasi dalam matematika. Dia cukup akrab dengan sejarah dan geografi ... Anak ini akan membuat pelaut yang sangat baik." [20] [ catatan 3]
Setelah menyelesaikan studinya di Brienne pada tahun 1784, Napoleon mengaku elit École Militaire di Paris; ini berakhir ambisi angkatan laut, yang telah menyebabkan dia untuk mempertimbangkan aplikasi ke Inggris Angkatan Laut . [22] Sebaliknya, ia dilatih untuk menjadi seorang perwira artileri dan saat kematian ayahnya berkurang penghasilannya, dipaksa untuk menyelesaikan kursus dua-tahun di satu tahun. [23] Dia adalah Korsika pertama yang lulus dari Ecole Militaire [23] dan telah diperiksa oleh ilmuwan terkenal Pierre -Simon Laplace , yang Napoleon kemudian ditunjuk untuk Senat. [24]
Awal karir
Dia menghabiskan tahun-tahun awal Revolusi di Corsica, pertempuran dalam perjuangan tiga-cara yang kompleks antara kaum royalis, revolusioner, dan nasionalis Korsika. Dia mendukung revolusioner Jacobin faksi, memperoleh pangkat letnan kolonel dan perintah lebih dari satu batalyon sukarelawan. Setelah ia meninggalkan tempat itu telah melebihi dari ketiadaan dan memimpin kerusuhan melawan tentara Prancis di Corsica, entah bagaimana dia mampu meyakinkan penguasa militer di Paris untuk mempromosikan dirinya menjadi kapten pada bulan Juli 1792. [27]
Dia kembali ke Corsica sekali lagi dan datang ke dalam konflik dengan Paoli, yang telah memutuskan untuk berpisah dengan Perancis dan sabotase serangan Perancis di Sardinia Pulau La Maddalena , di mana Bonaparte adalah salah satu pemimpin ekspedisi. [28] Bonaparte dan keluarganya telah untuk melarikan diri ke daratan Perancis di Juni 1793 karena berpisah dengan Paoli. [29]
Pengepungan Toulon (1793)
Artikel utama: Pengepungan Toulon
Pada bulan Juli 1793, ia menerbitkan sebuah pamflet yang pro-republik, Le peningkat de Beaucaire (Perjamuan di Beaucaire ), yang memperoleh padanya kekaguman dan dukungan dari Augustin Robespierre , adik dari pemimpin Revolusi Maximilien Robespierre . Dengan bantuan rekan Korsika Antoine Christophe Saliceti , Bonaparte ditunjuk komandan artileri pasukan Republik di pengepungan Toulon. Kota ini telah bangkit melawan pemerintah republik dan diduduki oleh pasukan Inggris. [30] Dia mengadopsi rencana untuk menangkap sebuah bukit yang akan memungkinkan senjata republik untuk mendominasi kota pelabuhan dan memaksa kapal-kapal Inggris untuk mengungsi. Serangan pada posisi, di mana Bonaparte terluka di paha, menyebabkan penangkapan kota dan promosi ke brigadir jenderal pada usia 24. Tindakan-Nya membawanya ke perhatian Komite Keamanan Publik , dan ia dimasukkan ke dalam biaya dari artileri dari Perancis Tentara Italia . [31]
Sementara menunggu konfirmasi dari posting ini, Napoleon menghabiskan waktu sebagai Inspektur benteng pesisir di pantai Mediterania dekat Marseille. Dia merancang rencana untuk menyerang Kerajaan Sardinia sebagai bagian dari kampanye Perancis melawan Koalisi Pertama . [32] Komandan Tentara Italia, Pierre Jadart Dumerbion telah melihat terlalu banyak jenderal dieksekusi karena gagal atau karena memiliki pandangan politik yang salah. Karena itu, ia ditangguhkan ke kuat représentants en misi , Augustin Robespierre dan Saliceti, yang pada gilirannya siap untuk mendengarkan-baru dipromosikan artileri umum. [33]
Menjalankan rencana Bonaparte dalam Pertempuran Saorgio pada bulan April 1794, tentara Prancis maju timur laut sepanjang Riviera Italia kemudian berbelok ke utara untuk merebut Ormea di pegunungan. Dari Ormea, mereka dorong barat untuk mengepung Austro-Sardinia posisi di sekitar Saorge . Akibatnya, kota-kota pesisir Oneglia dan Loano serta strategis Col de Tende (Tenda Pass) jatuh ke tangan Prancis. [34] Kemudian, Augustin Robespierre dikirim Bonaparte dalam sebuah misi ke Republik Genoa untuk memahami niat negara itu menuju Perancis. [32]
13 Vendémiaire (1795)
Artikel utama: 13 Vendémiaire
Bonaparate bertunangan dengan Desiree Clary , yang saudara perempuannya, Julie Clary , menikah Bonaparte kakak Yusuf, yang Clarys adalah keluarga pedagang kaya dari Marseilles. [37] Pada bulan April 1795, ia ditugaskan ke Angkatan Darat Barat , yang terlibat dalam yang Perang di Vendée perang sipil dan royalis yang kontra-revolusi di Vendée, sebuah daerah di barat tengah Perancis, di Samudra Atlantik. Sebagai perintah infanteri, itu adalah penurunan pangkat dari artileri umum - yang tentara sudah memiliki kuota penuh -. Dan dia memohon kesehatan yang buruk untuk menghindari posting [38]
Dia pindah ke Biro Topografi Komite Keamanan Publik dan dicari, tidak berhasil, akan ditransfer ke Konstantinopel untuk menawarkan jasa kepada Sultan . [39] Selama periode ini ia menulis sebuah novel romantis, Clisson et Eugenie , tentang seorang prajurit dan kekasihnya, secara paralel yang jelas untuk hubungan sendiri dengan Desiree Bonaparte. [40] Pada tanggal 15 September, Bonaparte telah dihapus dari daftar jenderal dalam pelayanan reguler untuk penolakannya untuk melayani dalam kampanye Vendée. Dia sekarang menghadapi situasi keuangan yang sulit dan prospek karir berkurang. [41]
Pada tanggal 3 Oktober, kaum royalis di Paris menyatakan pemberontakan terhadap Konvensi Nasional setelah mereka dikeluarkan dari pemerintah baru, Direktori . [42] Salah satu pemimpin Reaksi Thermidorian, Paulus Barras , tahu eksploitasi militer Bonaparte di Toulon dan memberikan dia komando pasukan improvisasi dalam pertahanan Konvensi di Istana Tuileries . Bonaparte telah menyaksikan pembantaian Garda Swiss Raja sana tiga tahun sebelumnya dan menyadari artileri akan menjadi kunci untuk pertahanan. [16]
Ia memerintahkan seorang perwira kavaleri muda, Joachim Murat , untuk merebut meriam besar dan menggunakan mereka untuk mengusir para penyerang pada tanggal 5 Oktober 1795-13 Vendémiaire Sebuah IV di Kalender Republik Perancis . Seribu empat ratus royalis meninggal, dan sisanya melarikan diri. [42] Dia telah membersihkan jalan-jalan dengan "bau grapeshot ", menurut sejarawan abad ke-19 Thomas Carlyle dalam Revolusi Prancis: A History . [43]
Kekalahan pemberontakan dipadamkan royalis ancaman terhadap Konvensi dan memperoleh ketenaran Bonaparte mendadak, kekayaan, dan patronase Direktori baru; Murat akan menjadi saudara ipar dan salah satu jenderalnya. Bonaparte dipromosikan menjadi Komandan Dalam Negeri dan perintah yang diberikan Tentara Italia. [29] Dalam beberapa minggu dia romantis melekat pada nyonya mantan Barras itu, Josephine de Beauharnais , yang dinikahinya pada 9 Maret 1796 setelah ia memutuskan pertunangan untuk Desiree Clary. [44]
Pertama Italia kampanye (1796-1797)
Artikel utama: kampanye Italia dari Perang Revolusi Perancis
Dua hari setelah pernikahan, Bonaparte meninggalkan Paris untuk
mengambil alih komando Angkatan Darat Italia dan memimpin pada invasi
sukses Italia. Pada Pertempuran Lodi ia mengalahkan pasukan Austria dan mengusir mereka keluar dari Lombardy . [29] Dia dikalahkan di Caldiero oleh bala Austria, dipimpin oleh József Alvinczi , meskipun Bonaparte kembali inisiatif penting di Pertempuran Jembatan Arcole dan mulai menundukkan Negara Kepausan . [45] Bonaparte menentang keinginan ateis Directory untuk berbaris di Roma dan menurunkan dr takhta Paus sebagai ia beralasan ini akan menciptakan kekosongan kekuasaan yang akan dieksploitasi oleh Kerajaan Naples . Sebaliknya, pada bulan Maret 1797, Bonaparte memimpin pasukannya ke Austria dan memaksanya untuk merundingkan perdamaian . [46] Para Perjanjian Leoben memberi Perancis menguasai sebagian besar dari utara Italia dan Low Countries , dan klausul rahasia dijanjikan Republik Venesia ke Austria . Bonaparte berbaris di Venice dan memaksa penyerahan diri mereka, berakhir 1.100 tahun kemerdekaan, ia juga berwenang Prancis untuk menjarah harta seperti Kuda Saint Mark . [47]
Dia mahir spionase dan penipuan dan bisa memenangkan pertempuran dengan penyembunyian penyebaran pasukan dan konsentrasi pasukannya pada 'engsel' depan musuh melemah. Jika ia tidak bisa menggunakan favoritnya strategi meyampul , ia akan mengambil posisi sentral dan menyerang dua co-operasi pasukan di engsel mereka, putaran ayunan untuk memperebutkan satu sampai melarikan diri, kemudian beralih ke wajah lainnya. [49] Dalam hal ini Italia kampanye, tentara Bonaparte ditangkap 150.000 tahanan, 540 meriam dan 170 standar . [50] Tentara Perancis berjuang 67 tindakan dan memenangkan 18 pertempuran bernada melalui teknologi artileri yang unggul dan taktik Bonaparte. [51]
Selama kampanye, Bonaparte menjadi semakin berpengaruh dalam politik Perancis, ia mendirikan dua surat kabar:. Satu untuk pasukan dalam tentara dan satu lagi untuk sirkulasi di Prancis [52] . Kaum royalis menyerang Bonaparte untuk penjarahan Italia dan memperingatkan ia mungkin akan menjadi diktator [ 53] Bonaparte mengutus Jenderal Pierre Augereau ke Paris untuk memimpin sebuah kudeta dan membersihkan kaum royalis pada tanggal 4 September - Kudeta dari 18 Fructidor . Ini Barras kiri dan sekutu Partai Republik di kontrol lagi, tapi tergantung pada Bonaparte yang melanjutkan untuk perundingan perdamaian dengan Austria. Negosiasi-negosiasi menghasilkan Perjanjian Campo Formio , dan Bonaparte kembali ke Paris pada bulan Desember sebagai pahlawan. [54] Dia bertemu Talleyrand , Prancis baru Menteri Luar Negeri-yang kemudian akan melayani dalam kapasitas yang sama untuk Kaisar Napoleon-dan mereka mulai mempersiapkan untuk invasi Inggris. [29]
Mesir ekspedisi (1798-1801)
Artikel utama: Kampanye Prancis di Mesir dan Suriah
Napoleon Direktori meyakinkan bahwa "segera setelah dia menaklukkan Mesir, dia akan membangun hubungan dengan para pangeran India dan, bersama-sama dengan mereka, serangan Inggris dalam harta mereka." [56] Menurut laporan 1798 Februari oleh Talleyrand: "Memiliki Mesir diduduki dan dibentengi, kita akan mengirim kekuatan 15.000 orang dari Suez ke India, untuk bergabung dengan kekuatan Tipu-Sahib dan mengusir Inggris. " [56] Direktori sepakat untuk mengamankan rute perdagangan ke India. [ 57]
Pada bulan Mei 1798, Bonaparte terpilih menjadi anggota Akademi Ilmu Pengetahuan Perancis . Ekspedisi Mesir-Nya mencakup sekelompok ilmuwan 167: matematikawan, naturalis, ahli kimia dan geodesists antara mereka; penemuan mereka termasuk Rosetta Stone , dan pekerjaan mereka diterbitkan dalam Description de l'Égypte . pada tahun 1809 [58]
En rute ke Mesir, Bonaparte mencapai Malta pada tanggal 9 Juni 1798, kemudian dikendalikan oleh Knights Hospitaller . Dua ratus Knights asal Perancis tidak mendukung Grand Master, Ferdinand von Hompesch zu Bolheim , yang telah berhasil seorang Prancis, dan menegaskan mereka tidak akan melawan rekan-rekan mereka. Hompesch menyerah setelah resistensi token, dan Bonaparte ditangkap basis angkatan laut penting dengan hilangnya hanya tiga orang. [59]
Pada tanggal 1 Agustus, armada Inggris di bawah Horatio Nelson ditangkap atau hancur semua tapi dua kapal Prancis dalam Pertempuran Sungai Nil , dan tujuan Bonaparte posisi Perancis diperkuat di Mediterania merasa frustrasi. [62] tentara-Nya telah berhasil dalam peningkatan sementara kekuasaan Prancis di Mesir, meskipun menghadapi pemberontakan diulang. [63] Pada awal 1799, ia pindah tentara ke provinsi Utsmani di Damaskus ( Suriah dan Galilea ). Bonaparte memimpin 13.000 tentara Perancis ini dalam penaklukan kota-kota pesisir Arish , Gaza , Jaffa , dan Haifa . [64] Para serangan terhadap Jaffa terutama brutal: Bonaparte, pada menemukan banyak pembela mantan tahanan perang, seolah-olah pada pembebasan bersyarat , memerintahkan garnisun dan 1.400 tahanan yang akan dieksekusi oleh bayonet atau tenggelam untuk menyimpan peluru. [62] Pria, wanita dan anak-anak dirampok dan dibunuh selama tiga hari. [65]
Dengan pasukannya dilemahkan oleh penyakit-sebagian besar penyakit pes -dan persediaan miskin, Bonaparte tidak mampu mengurangi benteng dari Acre dan kembali ke Mesir pada bulan Mei. [62] Untuk mempercepat retret, ia memerintahkan dilanda wabah laki-laki untuk menjadi beracun. [66] (Namun, saksi mata Inggris kemudian menunjukkan bahwa kebanyakan pria masih hidup dan tidak diracuni.) pendukungnya berpendapat ini adalah perlu diberi pelecehan terus keluyuran oleh Ottoman kekuatan, dan memang mereka yang tertinggal di belakang hidup yang disiksa dan dipenggal oleh Dinasti Utsmani. Kembali di Mesir, pada tanggal 25 Juli, Bonaparte mengalahkan invasi amfibi Utsmani di Abukir . [67]
Penguasa dari Perancis
Artikel utama: 18 Brumaire dan era Napoleon
Unknown ke Bonaparte, Direktori mengirimnya perintah untuk kembali untuk menangkal invasi kemungkinan tanah Prancis, tetapi garis-garis miskin komunikasi berarti pesan telah gagal untuk mencapai dia. [68] Pada saat ia sampai di Paris dalam situasi Oktober Perancis telah ditingkatkan dengan serangkaian kemenangan. Republik bangkrut, bagaimanapun, dan Direktori efektif tidak populer dengan penduduk Perancis. [70] Direktori ini membahas "desersi" Bonaparte tapi terlalu lemah untuk menghukum dia. [68]
Bonaparte didekati oleh salah satu Direktur, Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès , untuk dukungannya dalam kudeta untuk menggulingkan pemerintah konstitusional . Para pemimpin dari plot termasuk saudaranya Lucien, pembicara dari Dewan Lima Ratus , Roger Ducos ; Direktur lain, Yusuf Fouché , dan Talleyrand. Pada tanggal 9 November-18 Brumaire oleh Republik Perancis Kalender-Bonaparte didakwa dengan keselamatan dewan legislatif, yang dibujuk untuk menghapus ke Château de Saint-Cloud , ke barat Paris, setelah rumor pemberontakan Jacobin adalah disebarkan oleh komplotan. [71] Pada hari berikutnya, para deputi telah menyadari bahwa mereka menghadapi kudeta. Dihadapkan dengan remonstrations mereka, Bonaparte memimpin pasukannya untuk merebut kontrol dan membubarkan mereka, yang meninggalkan legislatif pantat untuk nama Bonaparte, Sieyès, dan Ducos sebagai Konsul sementara untuk mengelola pemerintah. [62]
Konsulat Prancis
Artikel utama: Konsulat Prancis dan Perang Koalisi Kedua
Pada 1800, Bonaparte dan pasukannya melintasi pegunungan Alpen ke Italia, di mana pasukan Perancis telah hampir sepenuhnya didorong oleh Austria sementara dia berada di Mesir. [catatan 6] Kampanye mulai buruk bagi Perancis setelah Bonaparte membuat kesalahan strategis; satu kekuatan ditinggalkan dikepung di Genoa , tapi berhasil bertahan dan dengan demikian menempati sumber daya Austria. [74] Ini usaha, dan Perancis umumnya Louis Desaix bala 's tepat waktu, diperbolehkan Bonaparte sempit untuk menghindari kekalahan dan menang atas Austria pada bulan Juni di signifikan Pertempuran dari Marengo . [75]
Bonaparte saudara Yusuf memimpin perundingan perdamaian di Luneville dan melaporkan bahwa Austria, yang didorong oleh dukungan Inggris, tidak akan mengenali wilayah Prancis yang baru diperoleh. Sebagai negosiasi menjadi semakin gelisah, Bonaparte memberi perintah kepada jenderal Moreau menyerang Austria sekali lagi. Moreau memimpin Prancis untuk kemenangan di Hohenlinden . Sebagai hasilnya, Perjanjian Luneville ditandatangani pada Februari 1801, keuntungan Perancis Perjanjian Campo Formio adalah menegaskan kembali dan meningkat. [76]
Sementara perdamaian di Eropa
Lihat juga: Revolusi Haiti
Baik Prancis dan Inggris telah menjadi lelah dengan perang dan menandatangani Perjanjian Amiens pada Oktober 1801 dan Maret 1802. Ini menyerukan penarikan pasukan Inggris dari wilayah kolonial kebanyakan baru diduduki. [74] perdamaian itu gelisah dan berumur pendek. Inggris tidak mengungsi Malta seperti yang dijanjikan dan memprotes Bonaparte aneksasi Piedmont dan nya Undang-undang Mediasi , yang didirikan baru Konfederasi Swiss , meskipun tidak dari wilayah yang tercakup oleh perjanjian internasional tersebut. [77] Pertikaian memuncak dalam sebuah deklarasi perang oleh Inggris Mei 1803, dan dia dipasang kembali kamp invasi di Boulogne. [62] 
Bonaparte menghadapi kemunduran besar dan kekalahan Revolusi akhirnya di Haiti. Dengan Hukum 20 Mei 1802 Bonaparte perbudakan kembali didirikan di jajahan Prancis, di mana telah dilarang mengikuti Revolusi. [78] Setelah pemberontakan budak, ia mengirim pasukan untuk merebut kembali Saint-Domingue dan membangun basis. Kekuatan itu, bagaimanapun, dihancurkan oleh demam kuning dan perlawanan sengit yang dipimpin oleh jenderal Haiti Toussaint Louverture dan Jean-Jacques Dessalines . [catatan 7] Dihadapkan oleh perang segera terhadap Inggris dan kebangkrutan, ia diakui milik Perancis di daratan Amerika Utara akan dipertahankan dan menjualnya ke Amerika Serikat- Louisiana Pembelian -selama kurang dari tiga sen per hektar (7,4 sen per hektar). [80]
Reformasi
Bonaparte melembagakan reformasi berlangsung, termasuk pendidikan yang lebih tinggi, kode pajak , jalan dan sistem saluran pembuangan, dan mendirikan Banque de Perancis (bank sentral). Dia menegosiasikan Konkordat dari 1801 dengan Gereja Katolik, yang berusaha untuk mendamaikan penduduk sebagian besar Katolik untuk rezimnya. Itu disajikan bersama Artikel Organik , yang diatur ibadah umum di Prancis. Belakangan tahun itu, Bonaparte menjadi Presiden dari Akademi Ilmu Pengetahuan Perancis dan diangkat Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre Sekretaris nya. [58]Pada Mei 1802, dia melembagakan Legiun Kehormatan , pengganti untuk dekorasi royalis tua dan perintah ksatria , untuk mendorong prestasi sipil dan militer;. rangka masih dekorasi tertinggi di Perancis [81] kekuatan-Nya meningkat oleh Konstitusi Tahun X termasuk: Pasal 1. Nama orang Prancis, dan Senat menyatakan Napoleon Bonaparte-Konsul Pertama untuk Hidup. [82] Setelah ini ia umumnya disebut sebagai Napoleon Bonaparte bukan. [25]
Napoleon seperangkat hukum sipil , Kode Sipil-sekarang sering dikenal sebagai Napoleon Kode -disiapkan oleh komite ahli hukum di bawah pengawasan Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès , Konsul Kedua. Napoleon berpartisipasi aktif dalam sidang-sidang Dewan Negara yang draft revisi tersebut. Pengembangan kode tersebut adalah perubahan mendasar dalam sifat hukum perdata sistem hukum dengan stres pada hukum jelas tertulis dan dapat diakses. Kode-kode lain yang ditugaskan oleh Napoleon untuk mengkodifikasi hukum pidana dan perdagangan; Kode Instruksi Pidana diterbitkan, yang ditetapkan aturan proses akibat . [83] Lihat Legacy .
Kode Napoleon
Artikel utama: Kode Napoleon
Dieter Langewiesche menggambarkan kode sebagai "proyek revolusioner" yang mendorong perkembangan masyarakat borjuis di Jerman oleh perpanjangan dari hak untuk memiliki properti dan percepatan menjelang akhir feodalisme . Napoleon direorganisasi apa yang telah Kekaisaran Romawi Suci, terdiri dari lebih dari seribu entitas, ke empat puluh negara lebih ramping Konfederasi Rhein , ini memberikan dasar bagi Konfederasi Jerman dan unifikasi Jerman . pada tahun 1871 [86]
Pergerakan menuju unifikasi nasional di Italia itu juga dipicu oleh aturan Napoleon. [87] Perubahan ini memberikan kontribusi terhadap perkembangan nasionalisme dan negara bangsa . [88]
Sistem metrik
Artikel utama: Sejarah sistem metrik , Mesures usuelles , dan Unit pengukuran di Perancis
Pengenalan resmi dari sistem metrik pada September 1799 tidak populer
dalam bagian besar masyarakat Perancis, dan aturan Napoleon sangat
membantu adopsi standar baru di seluruh tidak hanya Prancis tetapi
Perancis lingkup pengaruh . Napoleon akhirnya mengambil langkah mundur pada tahun 1812 ketika ia melewati undang-undang untuk memperkenalkan usuelles mesures (unit pengukuran tradisional) untuk perdagangan eceran [89] - sebuah sistem ukuran yang menyerupai pra-revolusioner unit tetapi didasarkan pada kilogram dan meter ; for example the livre metrique (metric pound) was 500 g [ 90 ] instead of 489.5 g – the value of the livre du roi (the king's pound). [ 91 ] Other units of measure were rounded in a similar manner.
This however laid the foundations for the definitive introduction of
the metric system across Europe in the middle of the 19th century. [ 92 ] Persetujuan antara dua belah
Further information: Concordat of 1801
During the French Revolution, the National Assembly had taken Church properties and issued the Civil Constitution of the Clergy , which made the Church a department of the State, removing it from the authority of the Pope . This caused hostility among the Vendeans towards the change in the relationship between the Catholic Church and the French government. Subsequent laws abolished the traditional Gregorian calendar and Christian holidays.
While the Concordat restored some ties to the papacy, it was largely in favor of the state; the balance of church-state relations had tilted firmly in Napoleon's favour. Now, Napoleon could win favor with the Catholics within France while also controlling Rome in a political sense. Napoleon once told his brother Lucien in April 1801, "Skillful conquerors have not got entangled with priests. They can both contain them and use them." [ 93 ] As a part of the Concordat, he presented another set of laws called the Organic Articles .
Jewish emancipation
Further information: Napoleon and the Jews
Napoleon emancipated Jews
(as well as Protestants in Catholic countries and Catholics in
Protestant countries) from laws which restricted them to ghettos, and he
expanded their rights to property, worship, and careers. Despite the
anti-semitic reaction to Napoleon's policies from foreign governments
and within France, he believed emancipation would benefit France by
attracting Jews to the country given the restrictions they faced
elsewhere. [ 94 ] He stated, "I will never accept any proposals that will obligate the Jewish people to leave France, because to me the Jews are the same as any other citizen in our country. It takes weakness to chase them out of the country, but it takes strength to assimilate them." [ 95 ] He was seen as so favourable to the Jews that the Russian Orthodox Church formally condemned him as "Antichrist and the Enemy of God". [ 96 ]
French Empire
Main article: First French Empire
See also: Coronation of Napoleon I and Napoleonic Wars
Napoleon used the plot to justify the re-creation of a hereditary monarchy in France, with himself as emperor, as a Bourbon restoration would be more difficult if the Bonapartist succession was entrenched in the constitution. [ 99 ] Napoleon crowned himself Emperor Napoleon I on 2 December 1804 at Notre Dame de Paris and then crowned Joséphine Empress. The story that he seized the crown out of the hands of Pope Pius VII during the ceremony to avoid his subjugation to the authority of the pontiff is apocryphal ; the coronation procedure had been agreed in advance. [ note 8 ]
At Milan Cathedral on 26 May 1805, Napoleon was crowned King of Italy with the Iron Crown of Lombardy . He created eighteen Marshals of the Empire from amongst his top generals, to secure the allegiance of the army. Ludwig van Beethoven , a long-time admirer, was disappointed at this turn towards imperialism and scratched his dedication to Napoleon from his 3rd Symphony . [ 99 ]
War of the Third Coalition
Main article: War of the Third Coalition
The French Navy would escape from the British blockades of Toulon and Brest and threaten to attack the West Indies, thus drawing off the British defence of the Western Approaches , in the hope a Franco-Spanish fleet could take control of the channel long enough for French armies to cross from Boulogne and invade England . [ 101 ] However, after defeat at the naval Battle of Cape Finisterre in July 1805 and Admiral Villeneuve's retreat to Cadiz, invasion was never again a realistic option for Napoleon. [ 102 ]
As the Austrian army marched on Bavaria , he called the invasion of Britain off and ordered the army stationed at Boulogne, his Grande Armée , to march to Germany secretly in a turning movement —the Ulm Campaign . This encircled the Austrian forces about to attack France and severed their lines of communication. On 20 October 1805, the French captured 30,000 prisoners at Ulm , though the next day Britain's victory at the Battle of Trafalgar meant the Royal Navy gained control of the seas. [ 103 ]
Six weeks later, on the first anniversary of his coronation, Napoleon defeated Austria and Russia at Austerlitz . This ended the Third Coalition, and he commissioned the Arc de Triomphe to commemorate the victory. Austria had to concede territory; the Peace of Pressburg led to the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire and creation of the Confederation of the Rhine with Napoleon named as its Protector . [ 104 ]
Napoleon would go on to say, "The battle of Austerlitz is the finest of all I have fought." [ 105 ] Frank McLynn suggests Napoleon was so successful at Austerlitz he lost touch with reality, and what used to be French foreign policy became a "personal Napoleonic one". [ 106 ] Vincent Cronin disagrees, stating Napoleon was not overly ambitious for himself, that "he embodied the ambitions of thirty million Frenchmen". [ 107 ]
Middle-Eastern alliances
Main articles: Franco-Ottoman alliance and Franco-Persian alliance
Napoleon sent General Horace Sebastiani as envoy extraordinary, promising to help the Ottoman Empire recover lost territories. [ 108 ] In February 1806, following Napoleon's victory at Austerlitz and the ensuing dismemberment of the Habsburg Empire , the Ottoman Emperor Selim III finally recognised Napoleon as Emperor, formally opting for an alliance with France "our sincere and natural ally" , and war with Russia and England. [ 109 ]
A Franco-Persian alliance was also formed, from 1807 to 1809, between Napoleon and the Persian Empire of Fat′h-Ali Shah Qajar , against Russia and Great Britain. The alliance ended when France allied with Russia and turned its focus to European campaigns. [ 55 ]
War of the Fourth Coalition
Main article: War of the Fourth Coalition
After a decisive victory at Friedland , he signed the Treaties of Tilsit ; one with Tsar Alexander I of Russia which divided the continent between the two powers ; the other with Prussia which stripped that country of half its territory. Napoleon placed puppet rulers on the thrones of German states , including his brother Jérôme as king of the new Kingdom of Westphalia . In the French-controlled part of Poland, he established the Duchy of Warsaw with King Frederick Augustus I of Saxony as ruler. [ 112 ]
With his Milan and Berlin Decrees , Napoleon attempted to enforce a Europe-wide commercial boycott of Britain called the Continental System . This act of economic warfare did not succeed, as it encouraged British merchants to smuggle into continental Europe, and Napoleon's exclusively land-based customs enforcers could not stop them. [ 113 ]
Peninsular War
Main article: Peninsular War
Portugal did not comply with the Continental System
, so in 1807 Napoleon invaded with the support of Spain. Under the
pretext of a reinforcement of the Franco-Spanish army occupying
Portugal, Napoleon invaded Spain as well, replaced Charles IV
with his brother Joseph and placed his brother-in-law Joachim Murat in
Joseph's stead at Naples. This led to resistance from the Spanish army
and civilians in the Dos de Mayo Uprising . [ 114 ] Following a French retreat from much of the country, Napoleon took command and defeated the Spanish Army . He retook Madrid, then outmanoeuvred a British army sent to support the Spanish and drove it to the coast. [ 115 ] Before the Spanish population had been fully subdued, Austria again threatened war, and Napoleon returned to France. [ 116 ]
Following several allied victories, the war concluded after Napoleon's abdication in 1814. [ 119 ] Napoleon later described the Peninsular War as central to his final defeat, writing in his memoirs "That unfortunate war destroyed me... All... my disasters are bound up in that fatal knot." [ 120 ]
War of the Fifth Coalition and remarriage
Main article: War of the Fifth Coalition
In April 1809, Austria abruptly broke its alliance with France, and
Napoleon was forced to assume command of forces on the Danube and German
fronts. After early successes, the French faced difficulties in
crossing the Danube and suffered a defeat in May at the Battle of Aspern-Essling near Vienna
. The Austrians failed to capitalise on the situation and allowed
Napoleon's forces to regroup. He defeated the Austrians again at Wagram , and the Treaty of Schönbrunn was signed between Austria and France. [ 121 ] Britain was the other member of the coalition. In addition to the Iberian Peninsula , the British planned to open another front in mainland Europe. However, Napoleon was able to rush reinforcements to Antwerp , owing to Britain's inadequately organised Walcheren Campaign . [ 122 ]
He concurrently annexed the Papal States because of the Church's refusal to support the Continental System; Pope Pius VII responded by excommunicating the emperor. The pope was then abducted by Napoleon's officers, and though Napoleon had not ordered his abduction, he did not order Pius' release. The pope was moved throughout Napoleon's territories, sometimes while ill, and Napoleon sent delegations to pressure him on issues including agreement to a new concordat with France, which Pius refused. In 1810 Napoleon married Archduchess Marie Louise of Austria , following his divorce of Joséphine; this further strained his relations with the Church, and thirteen cardinals were imprisoned for non-attendance at the marriage ceremony. [ 123 ] The pope remained confined for 5 years and did not return to Rome until May 1814. [ 124 ]
Kekaisaran Perancis
French satellite states
Sekutu menyatakan
Invasion of Russia
Main article: French invasion of Russia
The Congress of Erfurt
sought to preserve the Russo-French alliance, and the leaders had a
friendly personal relationship after their first meeting at Tilsit in
1807. [ 126 ] By 1811, however, tensions had increased and Alexander was under pressure from the Russian nobility
to break off the alliance. An early sign the relationship had
deteriorated was the Russian's virtual abandonment of the Continental
System, which led Napoleon to threaten Alexander with serious
consequences if he formed an alliance with Britain. [ 127 ] By 1812, advisers to Alexander suggested the possibility of an invasion of the French Empire and the recapture of Poland. On receipt of intelligence reports on Russia's war preparations, Napoleon expanded his Grande Armée to more than 450,000 men. [ 128 ] He ignored repeated advice against an invasion of the Russian heartland and prepared for an offensive campaign; on 23 June 1812 the invasion commenced. [ 129 ]
In an attempt to gain increased support from Polish nationalists and patriots, Napoleon termed the war the Second Polish War —the First Polish War had been the Bar Confederation uprising by Polish nobles against Russia in 1768. Polish patriots wanted the Russian part of Poland to be joined with the Duchy of Warsaw and an independent Poland created. This was rejected by Napoleon, who stated he had promised his ally Austria this would not happen. Napoleon refused to manumit the Russian serfs because of concerns this might provoke a reaction in his army's rear. The serfs later committed atrocities against French soldiers during France's retreat. [ 130 ]
The Russians eventually offered battle outside Moscow on 7 September: the Battle of Borodino resulted in approximately 44,000 Russian and 35,000 French dead, wounded or captured, and may have been the bloodiest day of battle in history up to that point in time. [ 132 ] Although the French had won, the Russian army had accepted, and withstood, the major battle Napoleon had hoped would be decisive. Napoleon's own account was: "The most terrible of all my battles was the one before Moscow. The French showed themselves to be worthy of victory, but the Russians showed themselves worthy of being invincible." [ 133 ]
The Russian army withdrew and retreated past Moscow. Napoleon entered the city, assuming its fall would end the war and Alexander would negotiate peace. However, on orders of the city's governor Feodor Rostopchin , rather than capitulation, Moscow was burned. After a month, concerned about loss of control back in France, Napoleon and his army left. [ 134 ]
The French suffered greatly in the course of a ruinous retreat, including from the harshness of the Russian Winter . The Armée had begun as over 400,000 frontline troops, but in the end fewer than 40,000 crossed the Berezina River in November 1812. [ 135 ] The Russians had lost 150,000 in battle and hundreds of thousands of civilians. [ 136 ]
War of the Sixth Coalition
Main article: War of the Sixth Coalition
Despite these successes, the numbers continued to mount against Napoleon, and the French army was pinned down by a force twice its size and lost at the Battle of Leipzig . This was by far the largest battle of the Napoleonic Wars and cost more than 90,000 casualties in total. [ 139 ]
Napoleon withdrew back into France, his army reduced to 70,000 soldiers and 40,000 stragglers, against more than three times as many Allied troops. [ 140 ] The French were surrounded: British armies pressed from the south, and other Coalition forces positioned to attack from the German states. Napoleon won a series of victories in the Six Days' Campaign , though these were not significant enough to turn the tide; Paris was captured by the Coalition in March 1814. [ 141 ]
When Napoleon proposed the army march on the capital, his marshals decided to mutiny. [ 142 ] On 4 April, led by Ney , they confronted Napoleon. Napoleon asserted the army would follow him, and Ney replied the army would follow its generals. Napoleon had no choice but to abdicate. He did so in favour of his son; however, the Allies refused to accept this, and Napoleon was forced to abdicate unconditionally on 11 April.
Exile to Elba
In the Treaty of Fontainebleau , the victors exiled him to Elba , an island of 12,000 inhabitants in the Mediterranean, 20 km off the Tuscan coast. They gave him sovereignty over the island and allowed him to retain his title of emperor. Napoleon attempted suicide with a pill he had carried since a near-capture by Russians on the retreat from Moscow. Its potency had weakened with age, and he survived to be exiled while his wife and son took refuge in Austria. [ 144 ] In the first few months on Elba he created a small navy and army, developed the iron mines, and issued decrees on modern agricultural methods. [ 145 ]The Allied Powers having declared that Emperor Napoleon was the sole obstacle to the restoration of peace in Europe, Emperor Napoleon, faithful to his oath, declares that he renounces, for himself and his heirs, the thrones of France and Italy, and that there is no personal sacrifice, even that of his life, which he is not ready to do in the interests of France.
Done in the palace of Fontainebleau, 11 April 1814.—Act of abdication of Napoleon [ 143 ]
Hundred Days
Main article: Hundred Days
The 5th Regiment was sent to intercept him and made contact just south of Grenoble on 7 March 1815. Napoleon approached the regiment alone, dismounted his horse and, when he was within gunshot range, shouted, "Here I am. Kill your Emperor, if you wish." [ 147 ]
The soldiers responded with, "Vive L'Empereur!" and marched with Napoleon to Paris; Louis XVIII fled. On 13 March, the powers at the Congress of Vienna declared Napoleon an outlaw , and four days later Great Britain, Russia, Austria and Prussia bound themselves to each put 150,000 men into the field to end his rule. [ 148 ]
Napoleon arrived in Paris on 20 March and governed for a period now called the Hundred Days. By the start of June the armed forces available to him had reached 200,000, and he decided to go on the offensive to attempt to drive a wedge between the oncoming British and Prussian armies. The French Army of the North crossed the frontier into the United Kingdom of the Netherlands , in modern-day Belgium. [ 149 ]
Napoleon's forces fought the allies, led by Wellington and Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher , at the Battle of Waterloo on 18 June 1815. Wellington's army withstood repeated attacks by the French and drove them from the field while the Prussians arrived in force and broke through Napoleon's right flank. Napoleon was defeated because he had to fight two armies with one, attacking an army in an excellent defensive position through wet and muddy terrain.
Kesehatannya hari itu mungkin mempengaruhi kehadiran dan semangat di lapangan, ditambah dengan fakta bahwa bawahannya mungkin telah mengecewakannya. Despite this, Napoleon came very close to clinching victory. Outnumbered, the French army left the battlefield in disorder, which allowed Coalition forces to enter France and restore Louis XVIII to the French throne.
Off the port of Rochefort, Charente-Maritime , after consideration of an escape to the United States, Napoleon formally demanded political asylum from the British Captain Frederick Maitland on HMS Bellerophon on 15 July 1815. [ 150 ]
Exile on Saint Helena
Napoleon moved to Longwood House in December 1815; it had fallen into disrepair, and the location was damp, windswept and unhealthy. The Times published articles insinuating the British government was trying to hasten his death, and he often complained of the living conditions in letters to the governor and his custodian, Hudson Lowe . [ 153 ]
With a small cadre of followers, Napoleon dictated his memoirs and criticised his captors—particularly Lowe. Lowe's treatment of Napoleon is regarded as poor by historians such as Frank McLynn. [ 154 ] Lowe exacerbated a difficult situation through measures including a reduction in Napoleon's expenditure, a rule that no gifts could be delivered to him if they mentioned his imperial status, and a document his supporters had to sign that guaranteed they would stay with the prisoner indefinitely. [ 154 ]
There were other plots to rescue Napoleon from captivity including one from Texas , where exiled soldiers from the Grande Armée wanted a resurrection of the Napoleonic Empire in America. There was even a plan to rescue him with a primitive submarine . [ 158 ] For Lord Byron , Napoleon was the epitome of the Romantic hero, the persecuted, lonely and flawed genius. The news that Napoleon had taken up gardening at Longwood also appealed to more domestic British sensibilities. [ 159 ]
Kematian
Further information: Napoleon's Death Mask and Retour des cendres
In February 1821, his health began to fail rapidly, and on 3 May two
British physicians, who had recently arrived, attended on him but could
only recommend palliatives. [ 160 ] He died two days later, after confession, Extreme Unction and Viaticum in the presence of Father Ange Vignali. [ 160 ] His last words were, "France, armée, tête d'armée, Joséphine."("France, army, head of the army, Joséphine.") [ 160 ] Napoleon's original death mask was created around 6 May, though it is not clear which doctor created it. [ 161 ] [ note 10 ] In his will, he had asked to be buried on the banks of the Seine , but the British governor said he should be buried on St. Helena, in the Valley of the Willows. Hudson Lowe insisted the inscription should read 'Napoleon Bonaparte'; Montholon and Bertrand wanted the Imperial title 'Napoleon' as royalty were signed by their first names only. As a result the tomb was left nameless. [ 160 ]
On 15 December, a state funeral was held. The hearse proceeded from the Arc de Triomphe down the Champs-Élysées , across the Place de la Concorde to the Esplanade des Invalides and then to the cupola in St Jérôme's Chapel, where it stayed until the tomb designed by Louis Visconti was completed. In 1861, Napoleon's remains were entombed in a porphyry sarcophagus in the crypt under the dome at Les Invalides. [ 164 ]
Penyebab kematian
Napoleon's physician, François Carlo Antommarchi , led the autopsy, which found the cause of death to be stomach cancer . Antommarchi did not, however, sign the official report. [ 165 ] Napoleon's father had died of stomach cancer though this was seemingly unknown at the time of the autopsy. [ 166 ] Antommarchi found evidence of a stomach ulcer, and it was the most convenient explanation for the British who wanted to avoid criticism over their care of the emperor. [ 160 ]
They maintained that the potassium tartrate used in his treatment prevented his stomach from expellation of these compounds and that the thirst was a symptom of poisoning. Their hypothesis was that the calomel given to Napoleon became an overdose, which killed him and left behind extensive tissue damage. [ 167 ] A 2007 article stated the type of arsenic found in Napoleon's hair shafts was mineral type, the most toxic, and according to toxicologist Patrick Kintz, this supported the conclusion his death was murder. [ 168 ]
The wallpaper used in Longwood contained a high level of arsenic compound used for colouring by British manufacturers. The adhesive, which in the cooler British environment was innocuous, may have grown mould in the more humid climate and emitted the poisonous gas arsine . This theory has been ruled out as it does not explain the arsenic absorption patterns found in other analyses. [ 167 ]
There have been modern studies which have supported the original autopsy finding. [ 168 ] Researchers, in a 2008 study, analysed samples of Napoleon's hair from throughout his life, and from his family and other contemporaries. All samples had high levels of arsenic, approximately 100 times higher than the current average. According to these researchers, Napoleon's body was already heavily contaminated with arsenic as a boy, and the high arsenic concentration in his hair was not caused by intentional poisoning; people were constantly exposed to arsenic from glues and dyes throughout their lives. [ note 11 ] 2007 and 2008 studies dismissed evidence of arsenic poisoning, and confirmed evidence of peptic ulcer and gastric cancer as the cause of death. [ 170 ]
Pernikahan dan anak-anak
Joséphine had lovers, including a Hussar lieutenant, Hippolyte Charles, during Napoleon's Italian campaign. [ 173 ] Napoleon learnt the full extent of her affair with Charles while in Egypt, and a letter he wrote to his brother Joseph regarding the subject was intercepted by the British. The letter appeared in the London and Paris presses, much to Napoleon's embarrassment. Napoleon had his own affairs too: during the Egyptian campaign he took Pauline Bellisle Foures, the wife of a junior officer, as his mistress. She became known as Cleopatra after the Ancient Egyptian ruler. [ 174 ] [ note 12 ]
While Napoleon's mistresses had children by him, Joséphine did not produce an heir, possibly because of either the stresses of her imprisonment during the Reign of Terror or an abortion she may have had in her 20s. [ 176 ] Napoleon ultimately chose divorce so he could remarry in search of an heir. In March 1810, he married Marie Louise , Archduchess of Austria, and a great niece of Marie Antoinette by proxy ; thus he had married into a German royal and imperial family . [ 177 ]
They remained married until his death, though she did not join him in exile on Elba and thereafter never saw her husband again. The couple had one child, Napoleon Francis Joseph Charles (1811–1832), known from birth as the King of Rome . He became Napoleon II in 1814 and reigned for only two weeks. He was awarded the title of the Duke of Reichstadt in 1818 and died of tuberculosis aged 21, with no children. [ 178 ]
Napoleon and religions
Further information: Napoleon and the Catholic Church
Napoleon's baptism was held in Ajaccio
on 21 July 1771; he was piously raised and received a Christian
education; however, his teachers failed to give faith to the young boy. [ 181 ] As an adult, Napoleon was described as a " deist with involuntary respect and fondness for Catholicism." [ 182 ] He never believed in a living God; Napoleon's deity was an absent and distant God, [ 181 ] but he pragmatically considered organised religions as key elements of social order , [ 181 ]
and especially Catholicism, whose, according to him, "splendorous
ceremonies and sublime moral better act over the imagination of the
people than other religions". [ 181 ] Napoleon had a civil marriage with Joséphine de Beauharnais, without religious ceremony, on 9 March 1796. During the campaign in Egypt, Napoleon showed much tolerance towards religion for a revolutionary general, holding discussions with Muslim scholars and ordering religious celebrations, but General Dupuy , who accompanied Napoleon, revealed, shortly after Pope Pius VI 's death, the political reasons for such behaviour: "We are fooling Egyptians with our pretended interest for their religion; neither Bonaparte nor we believe in this religion more than we did in Pius the Defunct 's one". [ note 13 ]
His religious opportunism is epitomized in his famous quote: "It is by making myself Catholic that I brought peace to Brittany and Vendée . It is by making myself Italian that I won minds in Italy. It is by making myself a Moslem that I established myself in Egypt. If I governed a nation of Jews, I should reestablish the Temple of Solomon ." [ 184 ]
Napoleon crowned himself Emperor Napoleon I on 2 December 1804 at Notre Dame de Paris with the benediction of Pope Pius VII . The 1 April 1810, Napoleon religiously married the Austrian princess Marie Louise . In a private discussion with general Gourgaud during his exile on Saint Helena, Napoleon expressed materialistic views on the origin of man, [ note 14 ] and doubted the divinity of Jesus , stating that it is absurd to believe that Socrates , Plato , Muhammad and the Anglicans should be damned for not being Roman Catholics. [ note 15 ] However, Napoleon was anointed by a priest before his death. [ 187 ]
Gambar
Further information: Cultural depictions of Napoleon and Napoleonic propaganda
During the Napoleonic Wars he was taken seriously by the British press as a dangerous tyrant , poised to invade. A nursery rhyme warned children that Bonaparte ravenously ate naughty people; the ' bogeyman '. [ 190 ] The British Tory press sometimes depicted Napoleon as much smaller than average height , and this image persists. Confusion about his height also results from the difference between the French pouce and British inch —2.71 and 2.54 cm respectively; he was about 1.7 metres (5 ft 7 in) tall, average height for the period. [ note 16 ] [ 192 ]
In 1908 psychologist Alfred Adler cited Napoleon to describe an inferiority complex in which short people adopt an over-aggressive behaviour to compensate for lack of height; this inspired the term Napoleon complex . [ 193 ] The stock character of Napoleon is a comically short "petty tyrant" and this has become a cliché in popular culture. He is often portrayed wearing a large bicorne hat with a hand-in-waistcoat gesture—a reference to the 1812 painting by Jacques-Louis David. [ 194 ]
Warisan
Perang
Further information: Napoleonic weaponry and warfare and Military career of Napoleon Bonaparte
Corps replaced divisions as the largest army units, mobile artillery was integrated into reserve batteries, the staff system became more fluid and cavalry returned as an important formation in French military doctrine. These methods are now referred to as essential features of Napoleonic warfare. [ 195 ] Though he consolidated the practice of modern conscription introduced by the Directory, one of the restored monarchy's first acts was to end it. [ 196 ]
His opponents learned from Napoleon's innovations. The increased importance of artillery after 1807 stemmed from his creation of a highly mobile artillery force, the growth in artillery numbers, and changes in artillery practices. As a result of these factors, Napoleon, rather than relying on infantry to wear away the enemy's defenses, now could use massed artillery as a spearhead to pound a break in the enemy's line that was then exploited by supporting infantry and cavalry. McConachy rejects the alternative theory that growing reliance on artillery by the French army beginning in 1807 was an outgrowth of the declining quality of the French infantry and, later, France's inferiority in cavalry numbers. [ 197 ] Weapons and other kinds of military technology remained largely static through the Revolutionary and Napoleonic eras, but 18th century operational mobility underwent significant change. [ 198 ]
Napoleon's biggest influence was in the conduct of warfare. Antoine-Henri Jomini explained Napoleon's methods in a widely used textbook that influenced all European and American armies. [ 199 ] Napoleon was regarded by the influential military theorist Carl von Clausewitz as a genius in the operational art of war, and historians rank him as a great military commander. [ 200 ] Wellington, when asked who was the greatest general of the day, answered: "In this age, in past ages, in any age, Napoleon." [ 201 ]
Napoleon menderita kemunduran militer Namun berbagai: Aspern-Essling pada tahun 1809, Rusia pada tahun 1812 dan di Leipzig tahun 1813. Dia juga harus meninggalkan pasukannya di Mesir - hasil dari kekalahan strategis daripada apapun dalam pertempuran bernada sebaliknya. Dengan pengecualian dari dua pertempuran skala kecil di Italia, Napoleon tidak kalah dalam pertempuran lapangan tanpa berat kalah jumlah.
Under Napoleon, a new emphasis towards the destruction, not just outmanoeuvring, of enemy armies emerged. Invasions of enemy territory occurred over broader fronts which made wars costlier and more decisive. The political impact of war increased significantly; defeat for a European power meant more than the loss of isolated enclaves. Near- Carthaginian peaces intertwined whole national efforts, intensifying the Revolutionary phenomenon of total war. [ 202 ]
Bonapartism
Main article: Bonapartism
In
French political history, Bonapartism has two meanings. The term can
refer to people who restored the French Empire under the House of Bonaparte
including Napoleon's Corsican family and his nephew Louis. Napoleon
left a Bonapartist dynasty which ruled France again; Louis became Napoleon III , Emperor of the Second French Empire and was the first President of France
. In a wider sense, Bonapartism refers to a broad centrist or
center-right political movement that advocates the idea of a strong and centralised state , based on populism . [ 203 ] Kritik
His critics charge that he was not significantly troubled when faced with the prospect of war and death for thousands, turned his search for undisputed rule into a series of conflicts throughout Europe and ignored treaties and conventions alike. His role in the Haitian Revolution and decision to reinstate slavery in France's oversea colonies are controversial and have an impact on his reputation. [ 206 ]
Napoleon institutionalised plunder of conquered territories: French museums contain art stolen by Napoleon's forces from across Europe. Artefacts were brought to the Musée du Louvre for a grand central museum; his example would later serve as inspiration for more notorious imitators. [ 207 ] He was compared to Adolf Hitler most famously by the historian Pieter Geyl in 1947. [ 208 ] David G. Chandler , historian of Napoleonic warfare, wrote that, "Nothing could be more degrading to the former and more flattering to the latter." [ 209 ]
Critics argue Napoleon's true legacy must reflect the loss of status for France and needless deaths brought by his rule: historian Victor Davis Hanson writes, "After all, the military record is unquestioned—17 years of wars, perhaps six million Europeans dead , France bankrupt, her overseas colonies lost." [ 210 ] McLynn notes that, "He can be viewed as the man who set back European economic life for a generation by the dislocating impact of his wars. [ 205 ] However, Vincent Cronin replies that such criticism relies on the flawed premise that Napoleon was responsible for the wars which bear his name, when in fact France was the victim of a series of coalitions which aimed to destroy the ideals of the Revolution.
Propaganda and memory
Napoleon's masterful use of propaganda contributed to his rise to power, legitimated his regime, and established his image for posterity. Strict censorship, controlling every aspect of the press, books, theater, and art, was only part of his propaganda scheme, aimed at portraying him as bringing desperately wanted peace and stability to France. The propagandistic rhetoric changed in relation to events and the atmosphere of Napoleon's reign, focusing first on his role as a general in the army and identification as a soldier, and moving to his role as emperor and a civil leader. Specifically targeting his civilian audience, Napoleon fostered an important, though uneasy, relationship with the contemporary art community, taking an active role in commissioning and controlling all forms of art production to suit his propaganda goals.The memory of Napoleon in Poland is highly favorable, for his support for independence and opposition to Russia, his legal code, the abolition of serfdom, and the introduction of modern middle class buraucracies.
Hazareesingh (2004) explores how Napoleon's image and memory is best understood when considered within its socio-political context. It played a key role in collective political defiance of the Bourbon restoration monarchy in 1815-30. People from all walks of life and all areas of France, particularly Napoleonic veterans, drew on the Napoleonic legacy and its connections with the ideals of the 1789 revolution.
Widespread rumors of Napoleon's return from St. Helena and Napoleon as an inspiration for patriotism, individual and collective liberties, and political mobilization manifested themselves in seditious materials, notably displaying the tricolor and rosettes, and subversive activities celebrating anniversaries of Napoleon's life and reign and disrupting royal celebrations, and demonstrated the prevailing and successful goal of the varied supporters of Napoleon to constantly destabilize the Bourbon regime.
Datta (2005) shows that following the collapse of militaristic Boulangism in the late 1880s, the Napoleonic legend was divorced from party politics and revived in popular culture. Concentrating on two plays and two novels from the period - Victorien Sardou 's Madame Sans-Gêne (1893), Maurice Barrès 's Les Déracinés (1897), Edmond Rostand 's L'Aiglon (1900), and André de Lorde and Gyp 's Napoléonette (1913) Datta examines how writers and critics of the Belle Epoque exploited the Napoleonic legend for diverse political and cultural ends.
Reduced to a minor character, the new fictional Napoleon was not a world historical figure but an intimate one fashioned by each individual's needs and consumed as popular entertainment. In their attempts to represent the emperor as a figure of national unity, proponents and detractors of the Third Republic used the legend as a vehicle for exploring anxieties about gender and fears about the processes of democratization that accompanied this new era of mass politics and culture.
International Napoleonic Congresses are held regularly and include participation by members of the French and American military, French politicians and scholars from different countries.
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